How Does the Nature of Children’s Friendship Change with Age

How does the nature of children's friendship change with age? Within this essay I will be looking at how children's friendships change in nature as they age. I will begin first by defining what is meant by the term friendship. I will then examine theories on stage and age development in relation to the development of friendships, exploring research which suggests that the nature of a child's friendship is based on their age.I will look at conflicting research which suggests that although stage's of friendship may be categorized, that there is conflicting research to suggest the ages at which this behaviour manifests itself may not be the same for each child. Finally I will summarize by concluding how the nature of children's friendship changes with age. The very definition of what the term friendship actually means in itself is difficult to clarify and categorize. A dictionary definition defines friendship as an attachment from mutual esteem, and a friend as someone who is loving or attached to another.As an adult it can seem easy to define who are friends are, they are like minded individuals whom we share common interests with, people we trust and socialize with. Other people within our adult life are associates, work colleagues or general acquaintances. The category of friend is reserved for those whom we have developed a bond with and in most cases an emotional attachment to. However, when we consider this in relation to the nature of children's friendship this dictionary definition and an adults view of friendship may not hold true for all children.It also over simplifies the nature and dynamics involved in friendship. Barnes (2003, pg 49) highlights this when he discusses the many experiences children have of friendship, and the emotions and experiences these friendships expose children to, for example it affords them the opportunity to share experiences, develop communication and develop a sense of closeness to another person, however in contrast to this Barnes tells us that friendships in childhood introduces children to a to conflict situations and emotions such as jealousy, anger and loneliness.Best to leave a line space between paragraphs. The significance of childhood friendships can be a difficult area to gauge. The importance of these relationships and the subsequent impact on a child is not something which can be measured with any certainty. Allison James, an anthropologist, states the difficulty of guaging impact but also acknowledges the significance of childhood relationships and the importance of these ‘friendships' in preparing children for later life and adult roles. participation in this tangled web of social relationships helps to shape identity and sense of self which is assumed as s/he moves towards adulthood to become a person in society†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. the actual process of socialisation can only ever be haltingly documented† (James, 1993 cited in Kehily and Swann, 2003. pg 51). James admission that research in this area can be difficult to record and analyse is supported by Barnes when he discusses the reminiscing of childhood by adults in later life â€Å"none of this is to deny the the value of personal reminiscence†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. ut it serves as a reminder not just to accept it in an unquestioning way† ( Barnes, 2003, pg. 51) American psychologist Robert Selman supports the theory that the nature of children's friendships is influenced by their social understanding which develops as they age. Selman carried out research whereby he posed ‘dilemma's' through scenarios to children aged between three and fifteen, he then questioned the children on their solutions to these dilemma's and recorded these interviews.In doing this Selman came to the conclusion that the nature of friendship could be categorized into four distinct stages, related to four distinct ages. Barnes (2003, pg 56) outlines Selman's four stages, ‘Momentary physical playmate† this is the stage whereby children, usually around the age of three to five will categorize their friends as those who live in their locality, go to the same school and who partake in similar activities.The second stage is ‘ One-way assistance' this is the stage whereby children do things to please another, within this stage Selman acknowledges that although at this stage children may try to adapt to others the friendship is still one sided and there is little evidence of the reciprocal nature of friendship, the age at which this occurs in most children is between the age of six to eight years old. The third stage of Selmans theory is the â€Å"fairweather co-operation† stage usually evident in children aged between nine and twelve years.Within this stage children begin to see the consequence of their actions and begin to act accordingly, that is to say they appreciate that their actions and the actions of their friends are now evaluated and hence they begin to become adapt able taking into account the thoughts, needs and preferences of their ‘friends'. Within this stage Selman argues that children may encounter conflict and disagreements which in turn may cause these friendships to peter out as opposed to enduring. Selmans final stage is called â€Å"mutual concern† this is usually seen around the ages of eleven to fifteen.Within this stage Selmans research suggested that children have developed the skills required to develop stronger friendships based on a mutal understanding Within this stage friendships can survive minor conflicts, Selman acknowledges the fact that, through his research, he found the way in which children describe their friendship has now changed, he found that descriptions were not based on physical descriptions, which had been the case with younger children but were now based on psychological attributes.Selman's theories on stage development of friendships can be compared with other researchers who also concluded tha t their were specific points in a child's life whereby the nature of their friendship differed dependent on age, Barnes (2003, pg 55) comments on Bigelow and La Gaipa (1980) who also categorized the nature of friendship based on particular age/stage brackets. Bigelow and La Gaipa argued that the changing nature of friendship developed alongside children's cognitive development.That is to say as children develop their cognitive understanding and have experiences of social interaction and the nature of their friendships develop and this can be categorized in general terms into particular ages. Barnes uses Zick Rubin, an American psychologist, to illustrate this staging theory, â€Å"Rubin (1980) likens this to climbing a ladder and resting at each rung in order to consolidate the new level of interpersonal awareness that has been achieved† (Barnes,2003, cited in Kehily and Swann).This categorization of stage development is not a new concept in the 1950's and 1960's Jean Piaget a Swiss psychologist through years of research developed theories regarding child development and the stages which children will act in a certain way based on their cognitive development, however â€Å"Increasingly psychologists have adopted a ‘lifespan perspective' which recognizes that development is a process that continues from birth to death†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ he end of childhood, as well as the beginning and middle, is not fixed by chronological age' (Morrow, 2003). It is therefore important not to wholly focus on the age of a child and assume that they will fit into a pre-defined category or stage, in my opinion what Morrow highlights for us is that development isn't fixed in to particular ages and stages, it suggests to me the way in which children and adults act can be determined by other factors such as their surroundings and the experiences they have.Avoid using too many quotations in U212 essays – use them sparingly. We want to hear your answer primarily in your words. Although it can be argued that â€Å"slotting†children's friendship development solely into age brackets isn't conclusive, it is helpful in determining the changing nature of friendship. By using stage development theories such as Selman's or Piaget's theories on the cognitive development of children we can use these ‘stages' to further explore the changing nature of friendship within a wider context.In the case of Selman, research was carried out by interviewing children of varying ages and asking them to comment on scenarios, a different approach in determining the changing nature of friendship has been explored through the observation of children in the context of play and life experiences and comparing these social interactions against the stage models.By taking an ethnographic approach studying children, this involves the direct observation and analysis of their communications, sociologist William Cursaro (1985) explored the way in which children talked abo ut friendship with each other. Through his studies Cursaro identified six distinct ways in which children talked in relation to friendship these included instances whereby children talked about ‘friends' as a method to gain access to play or categorized ‘friends' as the people they were playing with.Cursaro's research was based around children aged between three and five year old and in his findings highlights that empathetic behaviour is displayed even in children at this young age, if we compare this to Selmans stages of friendship development this empathetic behaviour should be seen at around the age of eleven onwards according to his research. Barnes (2003, pg 61) uses Allison James own findings from her study of four year olds to support Cursaro's findings.James (1993) suggests â€Å"through it's discrete performance that children learn about and experience friendship, which means that social contexts in which children find themselves, not simply their age, play th e greater part in shaping children's understanding of the concept† James and Cursaro offer a contrasting view to that of Selman and Piaget in the way in which children develop their friendships. It is clear that age alone can not truly determine how a child will behave towards their ‘friends' and that considerations relating to social experiences and environmental influences have to be taken into account.Common held beliefs, discourses, can also influence the way in which children will behave and react in relation to friends and friendship, factors such as culture, gender and social status will also have a bearing on a child or adults behaviour and thus influence the way in which they behave and feel they should behave. What is clear is that research offers no definitive model on the changing nature of children's friendships it cannot be precise in relation to age when a child will move from one stage to another it merely confirms the fluid nature of friendships.Previous sentence is too long and is actually three separate sentences. However what is apparent is the importance and significance of friendships need linking words or an introduction of some sort here for this quote;gt; â€Å"friendships are among the central ingredients in children's lives from as early as age three†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. through adolescence. Friendships occupy, both in their actual conduct and in the world of thought and fantasy, a large proportion of children's waking hours. They are often the sources of children's greatest pleasures and deepest frustrations. † ( Rubin,1980, cited in Barnes, 2003, pg 52).

Motivational Interviewing: How It Works With Native Americans Essay

The Motivational Interviewing and Stages of Change approach is complementary to the cultural values of Native American people and emphasizes listening, learning, and respect. Addictions in this day and time can be contributed to many factors and effect every ethnicity of people. Substance addiction has even affected the smallest ethnicity of people, Native Americans since their encounter with white people. Motivational Interviewing (MI) has even helped Native Americans through counselors learning and implementing the techniques. Even though clients are naturally resistant to change, utilizing the three pillars are very effective in helping even Native American people because expressing empathy shows that you care and developing discrepancy between client’s present behaviors and values & beliefs. Counselors today need to be trained in MI and cross culturally trained also to better serve individuals. I would through MI be empathic and express it through reflective listening, paraphrase what I hear from the client, ask them let me see if I am hearing you correctly, You are saying†¦.., I would communicate respectfully with the client, be supportive and establish a non-judgmental therapeutic relationship with the client. There are some great CBT techniques alone with homework assignments to help deal with the shame and embarrassment that a client is feeling about their substance use or other problems that are going on. CBT can be self talk with positive statements to themselves, daily mood and thought record and etc. There are so many techniques that can be utilized with MI to help a client even through shame. As a counselor, I will utilize the following principles known also as pillars with MI to help motivate my clients: expressing empathy through reflective listening, developing discrepancy between client’s present behavior and values & beliefs, rolling with resistance by avoiding arguments & confrontation also adjust to the resistance, and last support self-efficacy by affirming clients strengths and allowing freedom and choice. First pillar that would be utilized is expressing empathy. Expressing empathy means to understand my client, know and respect where they are in the stage of change, and using reflective listening by using reflection, paraphrasing, or summarizing what has been stated by the client. For example, so let me get this right you said †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. , Did I get that right? Okay, let me see if I understand what you are feeling right now. In other words walk a mile in their moccasins and know where they are coming from. Second, pillar that would be used is developing discrepancy by getting the client to see that their behaviors that they are exhibiting does not reflect what they have stated that is their values, beliefs, and morals. I would listen to my clients, reflecting, and ask open ended-question. According to Capuzzi & Stauffer (2012), â€Å"When a client is able to experience an internal discrepancy between his or her current behaviors and his or her values, beliefs, and goals, the change process can begin. This is due in large part to the underlying principle of cognitive dissonance (p.131). Third pillar is rolling with resistance which is where a client is resistant to change than as a counselor I would not argue with the client, I will ask the client to tell me more about their view point so that I can understand where they are coming from more. Most important avoid labeling a client. I would ask open-ended questions to invite them in to talk more about what they believe is their reason for not wanting to change, engage in problem solving, or maybe reflecting back their values, beliefs, and goals (Capuzzi & Stauffer, 2012). Last pillar is support self-efficacy which is fostering the client’s belief that they can make the necessary changes successfully, making sure the client knows that they are responsible for deciding to change and carrying out the change, let the client know my belief that they can change, and guide client to explore alternative problem solving solutions or approaches to change (Capuzzi & Stauffer, 2012). In conclusion, I learned that if a counselor is trained in MI and understands how to deliver the techniques with clients that it would be an effective technique with clients to motivate the stage of changes. For instance, â€Å"data from the current survey collected in a Native American community suggest that MI may be well suited as an intervention to prevent underage drinking and that a MI research program to reduce underage drinking would be generally well tolerated in this reservation community (Tonigan, Miller, & Villanueva, 2007). References Capuzzi, D., & Stauffer, M. (Eds.). (2012). Foundations of addiction counseling (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson. Tonigan, J. S., Miller, W. R., & Villanueva, M. (2007). Response of native american clients to three treatment methods for alcohol dependence Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com.library.gcu.edu:2048/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,url,cookie,uid&an=28650827&db=ehh&scope=site&site=ehost; http://xs6th8dt4r.search.serialssolutions.com.library.gcu.edu:2048?sid=CentralSearch:EDJ&genre=article&atitle=Response+of+Native+American+Clients+to+Three+Treatment+Methods+for+Alcohol+Dependence.&volume=6&issue=2&title=Journal+of+Ethnicity+in+Substance+Abuse&issn=1533-2640&date=2007-06-01&spage=41&aulast=Tonigan&aufirst=J

The rise of Renaissance culture

The rise of Renaissance culture was predetermined by the assortment of disparate events and ideas surfacing during the end of the fourteenth and the beginning of the fifteenth centuries. The most important concept to come out of all the innovative developments of the late fourteenth century was a renewed belief in the power and the majesty of the human being. An interest to individuality was a line of demarcation between the medieval period, where God was the center, and the epoch of Renaissance.The Renaissance is viewed as culmination of a general rebirth of humanistic pursuits and a freeing of the artist from the restrictive dogma of the medieval Church. The status of art and the artist shifted significantly and our contemporary views on both are based very much on certain assumptions about the role of art in culture that were first developed during the Renaissance. It was in the Renaissance that the role of artist went from simple maker to that of creator (with individual genius) – the appellation once reserved only to God.As a consequence, art took on even greater significance becoming not only an expression of its age and its means of production but also the very embodiment of genius. Filippo Brunelleschi fairly takes the place of such a genius. It was he, the Italian architect and sculptor, who made revolutionary discoveries in architecture. This Florentine was the first and perhaps the most distinguished of the Renaissance architects. The best support for the veracity of this statement is Brunelleschi’s solution for the dome of Florence Cathedral, the building that made him most complete and representative Renaissance artist.The story of Brunelleschi’s success begins with his failure. In 1401 the competition for a pair of bronze doors for Baptistery was announced (Web Gallery of Art). This was to be one of the greatest competitions at the age, and it pitted two of Florence’s most talented young artists against each other: Fili ppo Brunelleschi and Lorenzo Ghiberti. The competition asked each artist to submit design of cast bronze around the subject of the sacrifice of Isaac. Brunelleschi lost the bid. But this perhaps initial loss was the Renaissance’s gain in that his later discoveries in architecture were to prove revolutionary.At the time of competition the Florence Cathedral was still unfinished. The problem was how to successfully bridge the enormous area of central tower without the use of flying buttresses, which were out of question because of their obvious incompatibility with the beautiful Romanesque marble exterior. Brunelleschi studied many ancient building projects in Rome such a Parthenon and suggested that a dome could in fact be built without the visual distraction created by buttressing. His answer was the implementation of classical vaulting techniques.Thus Brunelleschi’s innovative design provided further evidence of the new sensibility of Renaissance art. Brunelleschi und erstood that the principles of buttressing were useful in spreading the enormous weight of a dome over a greater expanse – thereby alleviating much of stress on the walls and foundation of the structure. He thus concluded that the tall supporting walls of the dome had to be constructed with tribunes, small offshooting extensions from the original walls, which would act as the original buttress, to disperse weight over a wider area.In this way Brunelleschi manipulated the basic tenets of medieval cathedral construction to better serve the interests of the new church. Clearly, however, it was the dome itself that created such awe among the Florentines. No structure like it had been attempted in Europe since antiquity, and never before on such an immense scale. In 1420 he began to build the Cathedral dome, a vast octagonal structure crowned by an enormous lantern designed by Brunelleschi alone.His solution was to create a dome within a dome, which would further support the exter ior weight effectively while removing the need for interior armatures or any other superfluous accessories that would distract from the simplicity of the construction. The outer dome was thus constructed as a light skin or cover, exhibiting great visual authority over the Florence skyline. The use of â€Å"spiraling courses of herringbone brickwork, iron chains and sloping masonry rings to bind the dome together, and ribs joining the shells† (King, 87) are his inventions, although owe much to his studies of Roman structures.Brunelleschi’s genius lay in his abilities to combine ancient and modern aesthetic, architectural, and engineering principles. The result was a resurgence in dome architecture, since now architects possessed both the skill and technical know-how to attempt structures which had only years before been thought impossible. In the words of Vasari, Brunelleschi â€Å"was sent by Heaven to invest architecture with new forms, after it had wandered astray f or many centuries† (Vasari, 104).The ‘new forms’ were those of Classical antiquity, which Brunelleschi applied to such building types as cathedrals and basilican churches for which there were no ancient precedents. In these schemes he was the first since antiquity to make use of the Classical orders; at the same time he employed a proportional system of his own invention, in which all units were related to a simple module, the mathematical characteristics of which informed the entire structure. Brunelleschi worked almost exclusively in Florence, and many features link his architecture with the Romanesque heritage of that city.Nevertheless, he was beyond question responsible for initiating the rediscovery of ancient Roman architecture. He understood its inherent principles and he employed them in an original manner for the building tasks of his own day. So what we may conclude from Brunelleschi’s technical breakthrough that in the best way complied with Rena issance requirements? First, it must be remembered that had it not been for the renewed interest in Classical thought and culture, it is doubtful that artist like Brunelleschi would have sought inspiration from Roman architecture such as a Pantheon.It was not that artists and architects had not been interested in such building solutions before Brunelleschi comes on the scene, but simply that most looked toward more spiritual and divine art forms. Brunelleschi’s dome is by design a stable and symmetrical structure. It possesses attributes that visually mimic the emerging Renaissance ideas of harmony and equilibrium over the obedience and superstition that had marked the previous age. In this way, the innovative dome construction situates itself as a vivid reminder of the greatest influences its creator had in his time. Works Cited PageKing, Ross Brunelleschi’s Dome: How a Renaissance Genius Reinvented Architecture, New York: Walker and Company, 2000 Vasari, Giorgio. The Lives of the Artists. Transl. by Julia Conaway Bondanella and Peter Bondanella Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998 â€Å"Brunelleschi’s Biography† from Web Gallery of Art Retrieved Nov 7, 2006 from http://www. wga. hu/frames-e. html? /bio/b/brunelle/biograph. html â€Å"Brunelleschi’s Cupola† from Florence Art Guide Retrieved Nov 7, 2006 from http://www. mega. it/eng/egui/monu/bdd. htm â€Å"Filippo Brunelleschi† from Wikipedia Retrieved Nov 7, 2006 from http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Filippo_Brunelleschi

Overview of Contractual Risk Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Overview of Contractual Risk Management - Essay Example These factors are even prevailing when it comes to upstream oil and gas operations. A typical example of such factors has to do with contractual risk management. Generally, contractual risk management has to do with an integrated process and responsibility of reviewing, analyzing and evaluating contractual risks of pending agreements so that once the agreements are executed, there would not have any repelling risk effects for the parties involved (Taverne, 2008, p. 32). Upstream oil and gas operations is one that is commonly plagued with series of disaster based occurrences that put upstream companies in so much risk of facing liabilities. It is in this direction that both operators and contractors, mainly the government has involved each other the signing of contracts that seek to protect the interest of all people involved. Even though on from a broader perspective, it would be seen as a great idea that there are contractual risks, the absence of an effective and efficient manageme nt system would result in a situation whereby the contract favors one side to the detriment of the other and it is for this reason that contractual risk management is always important. ... ncentrate so much on contractual liabilities whereby there is an adjustment in the liabilities that defaulting companies pay (Gordon and Paterson, 2011, p. 232). The cause of the changes has also panned around two major factors. In the first instance, economic disposition has been identified as a strong factor that influences the contract landscape. Often times, when the market is weak in terms of falling global prices of oil, suppliers most cases become highly desperate towards their work and strive to overcome their negotiating position as they often have weaker negotiating positions at such times when the market is weak. Subsequently, oil and gas companies would be highly defensive on the liabilities involved in the contracts they enter into. Such weak markets is characterized by low revenues and profits for the oil and gas companies and so the best ways they try to stay within their means of operation is to avoid further risks including contractual risks. Apart from the strength of the market, events of increasing oil spills and other forms of upstream oil and gas accidents and disasters also affect the contract landscape. A typical example of this can be cited with the Macondo incident in the Gulf of Mexico, which resulted in several concerns from stakeholders of the type of risks that upstream oil and gas companies should be dealing. Certainly, during such times, contractors become defensive by increasing liabilities associated with prevailing risks. Role of Operators and Contractors Ideally, in the effect of contract risk, there are two major sides of stakeholders identified. These sides are operators and contractors. As expected, the operators are the upstream oil and gas companies who take up the responsibility and task of drilling and transporting oil and gas

Summarize chapter 23 and 24 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Summarize chapter 23 and 24 - Essay Example Finally, the chapter also delved into a discussion of safety procedures required during aircraft taxiing, parking and towing, among others. The aim of the chapter was to enhance awareness on ground operations to prevent accidents and ensure safety through effective flight line operations. Chapter 24 delved into a discussion of airports and heliports by first indicating three diverse scenarios: being a tenant, owning one, or using diverse airports or heliports, for that matter. The aim is to provide a comprehensive presentation of safety precautions and guidelines for safety managers, regardless of the kind of ownership. Learning begins with the airport certification manual and emergency plan. Differentiating criteria for airports and heliports were likewise presented. A great deal of spaces were accorded to contain relevant information detailing airport and heliport safety inspection subjects which make safety managers equipped in identifying safety programs, contents of manuals, required reporting, emergency plans, equipment, and fuel handling. It indicated that more information could be sourced from the Federal Aviation Administration, as required. The article written by Andrew Smolenski published in Examiner.com indicated the Federal Aviation Administration’ s (FAA) new ruling on improving relevant policies to prevent the increased helicopter accidents. The full press release from the FAA revealed that: â€Å"the U.S. Department of Transportation’s Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) today proposed broad new rules for helicopter operators, including air ambulances, which, if finalized, would require stricter flight rules and procedures, improved communications and training, and additional on-board safety equipment† (Smolenski, 1). It can be deduced that the relevance of insuring compliance to safety requirements as stipulated in manuals and emergency plans must be adhered to, as indicated in the course modules on ground operations

To what extent should there be employee voice within the workplace and Essay - 1

To what extent should there be employee voice within the workplace and organisations - Essay Example Employee voice also helps the organizations to increase the overall performance level giving importance to the employees and creating an atmosphere where the employees can feel at home. It also helps to increase productivity and the quality of the products for a particular organization, as the higher authority appraises their employees and engage them to evaluate their performance (Marsden, 2009). Hereby, the prime objective of this study is to highlight the employee voice and its importance in today’s world. This paper would also include the present scenario of employee voice and how it is beneficial to the workplace of various organizations from an in depth view with illustrations. Employee voice is the practice where the employees or the workers have their right to put their opinions and to take part in certain decision-making activities. Employee voice includes employee’s behavior, attitudes, interests and openness among others. It helps an organization to be more stable and constructive which, in turn, leads to the overall development in the organizational productivity. It is worth mentioning in this context that employee voice is the process which enhances the performance of the employees to a specific extent. The employee voice not only includes all the employees, but also involves the various stakeholders related to the organization to effectively improve and manage the arrangements which already exist in the internal business environment. In other words, employee voice is the practice which satisfies the employee needs and assists an organization to implement various strategies with the help of opinions and viewpoints of the employees and manager s. In the present scenario, employee voice has become an integral role or part of the strategic improvement process implemented in organizations to enhance the quality of work and also to improve the relationship among the workers (Holley et al.,

Management of Processes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Management of Processes - Essay Example However, the pressure of globalization and foreign competition had a big impact on the revenues of these companies (Emmons, Garry 2006). Lack of vision, corporate bureaucracy, bloated product lines or overcapacity, and lack of proper business management process started pulling down the sales of the American auto majors. Where the American auto companies lost, The Japanese auto major - Toyota - gained. Toyota acquired a significant market share by exporting attractive, low-cost, fuel-efficient vehicles to America. The Japanese auto giant achieved this by focusing on refreshing their products and having the flexibility in their factories. It stressed on the importance of lean manufacturing process and evolved the Toyota Production System (TPS). The company prefers to customize existing systems and equipment rather than installing the latest fancy technology. Their plants are in a state of continual improvement and repurposing, with input from everybody. Toyota uses technology not only in the manufacturing process, but also in engineering and designing. The objective of the 14 Principles of the Toyota Way is to base management decisions on a philosophical sense of purpose and think long term, to have a process for solving problems, to add value to the organization by developing its people, and to recognize that continuously solving root problems drives organizational learning (Liker, J. 2004). Behind Toyota's assembly line are sophisticated information systems supporting and enabling the business processes that help the automaker eliminate waste, limit inventory buildup and continually improve production. The main idea behind this business process management [BPM] is to blend machine-to-machine and human-to-machine connections to improve efficiency. What drives Toyota is its presumption of imperfection. The management encourages its work force to design and implement processes that help in getting it right the first time by reducing errors. It stress on continuous improvement and a pervasive lack of complacency with whatever was accomplished yesterday. B200 - Understanding Business: Processes Business organizations are considered as complex assemblies of interrelated sets of activities in which inputs are converted into outputs. This section helps us understand how business organizations apply the systems theory to perform their activities. It focuses on the importance of processes, and the resources that are needed for organizational success. Business management is now a systematic, methodical process that guarantees efficiency and effectiveness. Dr. Fahad Al Mekrad has discussed this topic at length in one of his works (B200 - Understanding Business: Processes). Transformation Process Model Organizations perform as systems and all parts the organization are operations. Organizations can either be 'closed or 'open' systems. Closed systems are completely self-supporting, while open systems interact with their environment. Open systems receive inputs from their environment, convert these inputs into outputs, and discharge their outputs into their environment. All operations are based on this input-transformation-output model. Competing on Capabilities The building blocks of corporate strategy are not products and markets, but

Markting concept Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Markting concept - Essay Example The second stage of product life cycle is growth. During the growth stage the product gains market acceptance and firms start generating good revenues. The profitability of the company improves during this stage. Since production increases the cost per unit decreases. The sales numbers increase as advertising campaigns target mass media audience instead of specialized marketplaces (Answers). The third stage of the product life cycle is the maturity stage. The maturing stage is a period in which the sales of product slow down because the most potential buyers already purchased the product. Competition increases during this stage and profits tend to go down. The final stage of the product life cycle is the declining stage. During the declining stage products are phased out as new products with greater utility come into the marketplace. During this stage sales plummet as profits erode. Price wars are common during this stage as competing companies want to capture the remaining market sh are of the marketplace. A product that recently went through a declining stage was cathode ray television sets. These types of televisions have become obsolete as flat screen LCD television sets have gone down in prices tremendously. The use of the product life cycle has helped me as a customer and it has impacted my work life.

Structural Geology in Petroleum Exploration Essay

Structural Geology in Petroleum Exploration - Essay Example These techniques constitute petroleum exploration, which in turn has several definitions. In one instance, oil exploration is defined as the process of searching for oil, among other petroleum related resources like gas, in the sedimentary basins of the earth. The mentioned exploration process depends on systematic utilization of technology based methods by innovative geoscientists (Larsen et al 52). It is this combination that paves way for viable drilling prospects and actual appraisal of oil zones or wells. In a different definition, petroleum exploration is considered to be a fundamental competency that should be carried out by qualified geoscientists for a prominent oil and gas organization. Evidently, there appears to be a general agreement in all definitions that geologists play a significant role in the oil exploration process. Another crucial factor to note is that, just like other exploratory studies oil searching is laden with uncertainties. It is difficult to tell whether gas or oil is present in a given place until drilling takes place. Prominent oil and gas companies usually spread the risks posed by the uncertainty over a collection of prospects, in order to manage the situation. This strategy is better than investing all capital, in terms of geology experts and equipment, in one oil drilling prospect. This paper seeks to provide a comprehensive analysis of oil exploration, by examining geological aspects, historical development t of exploration techniques and other petroleum related subjects. Background Crude oil is a derivative of living things’ remnants, which contain a material referred to as kerogen and compressed over many years. The kerogen from dead organic materials usually matures over time to form a wide variety of hydrocarbon molecules, of different molecular weight and size. The smallest of these hydrocarbon molecules usually escape in gaseous form, hence natural gas, while those with large molecular weight form a dense oily s ubstance beneath the earth’s surface. It is this viscous liquid substance that is extracted and refined to form petroleum oil and it’s diverse by products. Rocks from which petroleum is derived could be of marine or terrestrial origin. Usually, terrestrial petroleum rocks are found in river basins, lakes and deltas, which have organic materials, and algae, among other dead matter. On the other hand, source rocks for petroleum that are found in the marine environment may contain algae and dead plankton, among other organic remnants. In both environments, the organic remains get buried under pressure from overlying disintegrated materials. This implies that, for oil to be formed organic matter must be compressed under high pressure and in absence of oxygen, conditions referred to anaerobic (Larsen et al 100-152). It is under conditions devoid of oxygen that, the kerogen in dead matter changes to an easily ignited substance known as bitumen. This is made possible by the h igh prevailing temperatures, natural catalysts and microbial activity in the earth sediments. The greater portion of the bitumen formed gradually transforms into asphalt, discharging molecules of hydrocarbon, in addition to carbon dioxide and water. The viscous and dense oils get formed first, while light oils are formed as the process progresses. High subsurface temperatures lead to production of gas, and since petroleum is lighter than surrounding rocks, it rises upwards through pores and faults in the crust. The

Malaria Essay Example for Free

Malaria Essay Malaria is a disease caused by various protozoan species that belong to the genus Plasmodium, with Plasmodium falciparum predominating in Africa, New Guinea, and Haiti and Plasmodium vivax in Central America. The disease is transmitted through the bite of an infected Anopheles mosquito. Malaria has been regarded as one of the most important among the parasitic diseases of humans; it is transmitted in about 107 countries globally with a total estimated population of 3 billion people. It was also documented to have caused 1-3 million deaths each year (Fauci, et al. , 2008). In the United States, Canada, Europe and Russia, malaria has already been eliminated. However, occasional local transmission after importation of malaria has still been documented in several southern and eastern areas of the United States and Europe. This indicates that although these countries are â€Å"malaria-free† there still exist continual danger to non-malarious countries to contact the disease (Fauci, et al. , 2008). Moreover, despite considerable efforts, the cases of malaria have surged in many parts of the tropics for the past decades. In addition to this resurgence, the problem of drug resistance of the parasite and insecticide resistance of the vectors is also increasing (Fauci, et al. , 2008; Hay, et al. , 2002). The hot climate in the tropics is implicated as one the reasons for the prevalence of malaria in these areas; the increased incidence of malaria also coincides with the increased mosquito breeding and transmission during the rainy season. An epidemic could also ensue following changes in environmental, economic, or social condition. For example, heavy rains following drought or migration of workers or refugees from a non-malarious region to an area with high transmission rate could increase the incidence of malaria in a particular area. More importantly, the capability to shoulder the economic and health burden of malaria determines the success of combating the disease. The breakdown in malaria control and prevention services can intensify epidemic conditions and would usually result to considerable mortality among all age groups (Fauci, et al. , 2008). Although there are promising new control and research initiatives globally, malaria remains to be what it has been for centuries past – a heavy burden on the tropical communities, a threat to non-endemic countries, and a danger to travelers (Fauci, et al. , 2008). This is the reason why community based public health intervention is still very important. Prevention through the use of chemoprophylaxis should be encouraged and that these drugs should be made accessible and available especially to areas of epidemics. Chemoprophylaxis drugs prevent the successful infection of Plasmodium and are usually taken before going to an area with known malaria epidemic (Fauci, et al. , 2008). Moreover, the utilization of insecticide-treated nets and insecticides should be promoted to decrease frequency of mosquito bites particularly in malarious areas. Indoor residual spraying should be employed to kill the Anopheles mosquitoes resting indoors and thereby controlling the vectors of malaria (Najera, Kouznetsov, Delacollette, 1998; Greenwood Mutabingwa, 2002). Community health workers should also be trained to enhance their ability to handle malaria cases. This would not only increase the chances of successful treatment but the survival of patients with malaria as well (Greenwood Mutabingwa, 2002). Finally, the value of personal protection and the serious implementation of ways to eradicate breeding grounds of vector mosquitoes should be instilled among the people. Personal protection includes avoidance of exposure to mosquitoes at their peak feeding time, which is usually during dusk and dawns; the use of insect repellents containing DEET or picaridin; and wearing of suitable clothing (Fauci, et al. , 2008). Public health education should be carried out to effectively communicate the gravity, urgency, and impact of malaria on the personal lives of the people.

The Sewerage System In Malaysia Construction Essay

The Sewerage System In Malaysia Construction Essay Sewerage systems are one of the most important infrastructures in construction of residential, industrial or commercial project as it determines the quality of life enjoyed by a community. It consists of a network of underground sewer pipes, pump stations, sewage treatment plants and sludge treatment facilities. This system usually operates based on by gravity due to the slope of the pipe which reduces the high cost required for pumping. Sewers are further classified into a few categories, which depend on the type of wastewater that each of it carries. For example, storm sewers are designed to carry stormwater from roofs, paved areas, pavements and roads; industrial sewers are designed to carry wastewater generate from the industry; sanitary sewers are designed to carry the waste water from cooking and washing and the wastes from toilets. There is another type of sewer which is known as combined sewers. These types of sewers are designed to carry stormwater, industrial wastes, and domestic sewage. In Malaysia, many towns and cities use the separate sewer system. The wastewater is transported in separate pipes from storm sewers, industrial sewers and sanitary sewers. This system will not experience CSOs (Combine Sewer Overflows) which usually happen to combined sewer. The flooding will cause by stormwater only. Sewerage system is very important as it helps people to transport the wastes or sewage away from their places. Therefore, the system must be functioning well because improper functioning system will lead to pollution and contamination of various aspects of our surrounding which affect human life and health. Hence, regular maintenance must be done to the existing sewerage system and appropriate design must be applied to the new sewerage systems to ensure the sewerage systems are in good condition. The efficiency of the sewerage system is affected by the flow of the wastewater. In designing a sewerage system, the type and size of the pipe to be used must be able to accommodate the peak flow. The peak flow is based on the population equivalent which is a direct measurement of the population in an area. When designing the sewerage, there is a standard and criteria that should be followed. The standard code of practice for sewerage design in Malaysia (MS 1228:1991) was adopted from British Standard; BS 8005:1987. However, British Standard may not be as applicable to Malaysia due to the season and climate factor which have direct effect on the peak flow. This is the main reason of doing this research to find out whether the standard is suitable to be used in Malaysia. Problem Statement Any sewerage system will be designed to carry a certain amount of sewage based on the population equivalent (PE). In sewerage design, the per capita flow and the peak flow rate (Qpeak) are important parameters. Based on British Standard, the per capita flow is 225L/day/person and the peak flow factor, K is 4.7. However, a previous study indicated lower per capita flow and peak flow factor in the sewerage system in Malaysia although no conclusive results were obtained (Dayalan, 2007). A lower peak flow factor will result in smaller pipes which will incur lower cost. Therefore, further research is needed to study the suitability of current design criteria for sewerage system located in tropical climates. 1.3Research Objectives The objectives of the study are: To obtain flow data from pre-determined sewer tributary area. To evaluate the parameter in the peak flow factor equation for medium scale sewerage catchment system. To determine the relationship between population of an area to the peak flow of sewerage system. 1.4 Scope of Research To collect relevant information of sewerage design from selected literatures. To find out relevant formula provided in selected codes for sewerage design. To study the peak flow factor in sewer line that serve the PE value of 1000-10000. To measure flow characteristics by using flow meter with build-in sensor in manholes at Tropicana Indah. To compare the results obtained with the formula in the standard code. To make recommendation on the feasibility of the code formula to tropical climate. CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Sewerage System in Malaysia The sewerage system is designed to collect wastewater or foul sewage generated from residential, industrial and commercial areas through sewer pipes and discharges it to the treatment plants or facilities to ensure the sewage is released to the natural water bodies in an appropriate condition and quality (Geoffrey, 2004). In Malaysia, sewerage systems range from simple toilet with little or no treatment provided to modern sewage treatment plants that treat the sewage to the desired quality accordance to environment standard. There are two main types of sewerage system in Malaysia. A premise sewerage system is either connected to a public sewage treatment plant or an individual septic tank. Indah Water Konsortium (IWK) is responsible to provide service and maintenance to public sewage treatment plants and all the underground pipes and also provide desludging services to individual septic tanks (Abd Aziz, 2006). IWK decided to divide the underground pipe into two sections, public pipe and private pipe (Figure 2.1) to make sure that all underground pipes operate without any problem. Public pipe is under the responsibility of IWK and the private pipe is under individual responsibility. An individual have to pay for the IWK services when the private pipe need for servicing. (Abd Aziz, 2006). http://www.usj23.com/planet_free/sewage_system/Sewage%20System.jpg Figure 2.1 Flow of wastewater from private pipe to public pipe (USJ 23 Residence 2.2 Transportation of Wastewater Wastewater is usually transported through sewer pipes that are connected to the sewer mains by clay, cast-iron, or polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipes that range from 80-100mm diameter. The large sewer mains can be located about 1.8m deep or more than that along the centerline of a street or pathway. The small and large sewer pipes are made by different material, in which the smaller sewer pipes are made of clay, concrete, or asbestos cement, and the large sewer pipes are made of reinforced concrete construction. The flow of wastewater is different from water-supply system. The water supply is transported to each house by the application of pressure. However, the wastewater from each house is flows through sewer pipes by gravity. Therefore, the sewer pipe must laid on slope surface to allow the wastewater to flow at a velocity of at least 0.8m/s and not more than 4m/s. (MS1228:1991). If the wastewater flows at velocity lower than 0.8m/s, the solid material tends to settle in the pipe whic h will lead to blockage. Storm-water mains have similar structure as sanitary sewers but they have a much larger diameter than sanitary sewers. In certain places, the urban sewer mains are connected to interceptor sewers, which can then join to form a trunk line. The trunk line will then discharge the wastewater into the wastewater-treatment plant. This transportation process is shown in Figure 2.2. As the interceptors and trunk lines will carry the wastewater discharge from sewer main, they are usually made of brick or reinforced concrete which can carry more load than the other pipe. Sometimes, they are large enough for a truck to pass through them. (Norhan Abd Rahman et.al, 2007) http://techalive.mtu.edu/meec/module21/images/CombinedSewer.jpg Figure 2.2 Transportation of Wastewater (Michigan Environmental Education Curriculum, Wastewater Treatment) 2.3 Concept Theory In designing a sewerage pipe network, the pump stations and sewage treatment plants are required to carry and pump volumetric flow rate. The flow rates are usually measured in cubic meter per second (m3/s) and need to be calculated for both existing land use and for expected future development. There are two parameters that are used to calculate expected flow rates. One of the parameters is per capita flow. This per capita flow of 225L/person/day is an average daily flow, which means a person will produce 225 liters of sewage in a day. Another design parameter named population equivalent (PE) of a catchment can also be used to calculate the flow rate. PE is not a measure of population. However, it is used to measure the estimated number of people that use the sewage facilities. In residential areas, the PE is a direct measurement of the population in an area which is calculated as five per dwelling. The PE has a different method of measurement in commercial area. It is calculated fro m the floor area and this PE value is considered to be proportional to the number of people using a premise during the day which does not reflect the population living in an area. 2.4 Quantity for Wastewater 2.4.1 Tributary Area Tributary area is an area from where the wastewater is being transported to a particular sewer section. The types of activities in that area determine the quantity of wastewater being collected by a particular section. A survey has to be done when there is no information available on existing areas in order to determine the number and classification of persons and the types of industries. (Guyer, 2010) Table 2.1 shows the method of calculating the PE. Table 2.1 Equivalent Population, PE (MS1228:1991) No. Type of Premises/Establishment Population Equivalent (recommended) 1 Residential 5 per unit 2 Commercial: (include entertainment/recreational centres, restaurants, cafeteria, theatres) 3 per 100m gross area 3 School/Educational Institutions: Day schools/institutions 0.2 per student Full residential 1 per student Partial residential 0.2 per student for non-residential student and 1 per student for residential student 4 Hospitals 4 per bed 5 Hotels (with dining and laundry facilities) 4 per room 6 Factories (excluding process wastes) 0.3 per staff 7 Market (Wet Type) 3 per stall 8 Petrol kiosks/Service stations 18 per service bay 9 Bus terminal 4 per bus bay 2.4.2 Sanitary/Domestic Wastes 2.4.2.1 Contributing Population In designing the flow, the population to be used depends on the location of the sewer. The design population in a residential area is based on the number of houses served. However, the design population for an industrial area is the maximum number of staff ever employed. The design population for sewers that serve both residential and industrial areas include residents and non-residents. Designing of these sewers denote that no person should be counted more than once. Allowances should be made for future population changes caused by master planning projections and facility personnel requirements. (Guyer, 2010) 2.4.2.2 Average Daily Flow The average daily flow is counted by multiplying the population equivalent from resident and non-resident with the appropriate per capita flow and adding the two flows generated from both resident and non-resident. The average daily flow shows the total volume of waste generated over a 24-hour period. It cannot be used for wastes that were generated over shorter periods of 8, 10, 12 hours, etc. Therefore, it can only be used for designing sewers that generate wastewater over a 24-hour period (e.g. residential area). In Malaysia, the average daily flow for residential area is usually taken as 225L/person/day. In industrial areas, the average daily flow is taken as 115L/person/day as non-resident personnel and employees is working for 8-hour shifts. These quantities are usually used in designing wastewater treatment facilities. However, they are also used for sizing interceptors, trunk sewers and pumping stations serving large portions of the installation. (Guyer, 2010) 2.4.2.3 Average Hourly Flow Rate Average hourly flow rate is used for designing sewers that serve small areas of the installation (e.g. industrial area), where most of the wastewater is generated by non-residents or other short term occupants. The average hourly flow rate is counted based on the actual period of waste generation. For example, 1000 non-residents with an average daily flow of 115L/person/day would generate 115,000 liters in 8 hours which is equivalent to an average hourly flow rate of 14,375 L/h or 345,000 L/d. However, the average daily flow would still be 115,000 L/d. Therefore, the sewer must be designed hydraulically to carry 115,000 liters of waste in 8 hours instead of 24 hours (Guyer, 2010). If the sewer is designed to carry a waste of 115,000 liters in 24 hours, then the sewer pipe will not be able to transport the wastes as the actual volume of wastes generated is more than the design waste. This will lead to the blockage of sewer pipes and overflow in the toilet. 2.5 Design Wastewater Flow The design flow of wastewater must be determined for any section of a proposed sewer. The design flow is not only based on sanitary sewage; industrial flows, inflow and infiltration must also be taken into account. The following shows the equation to determine the peak flow factor and the factor to be considered in sewerage design. 2.5.1 Design Equations The peak flow required to design sewers, pumping station and treatment facilities are calculated by the following equation: Peak flow factor = 4.7 x p-0.11 p Estimated equivalent population, in thousand. The sewers are designed based on peak flow to ensure that the sewer pipes would be able to accommodate the wastewater generated at any time. 2.5.2 Factors Affecting Sewer Design In designing sewers, there are a few factors as stated in MS1228:1991 that must be taken into consideration: Economy in the design The sewers should be kept as short as possible and avoid unproductive lengths. Shallow rider sewers can be laid under highways having expensive foundations and surfaces to receive the local house connection, and to connect the riders at convenient points into the main sewers. Location of sewers The sewers should be placed within streets or right-of-way to ease the maintenance work. If topography dictates, the sewer is to be located within private properties, and provide adequate access for maintenance purposes. Location or the position of other existing or proposed service lines, building foundation, etc for maintenance purposes. A minimum at 3 m horizontal and 1m vertical separation from the water main should be provided to avoid the sewage from entering the water main. The impact of sewer construction and subsequent maintenance activities towards road users. Hydraulic Design The sewers should be laid at such gradients to produce adequate velocities to convey the solid matter. The gradient should produce a minimum velocity of not less than 0.8 m/s and a maximum velocity of not more than 4.0 m/s to avoid scouring of sewer by erosion action of suspended solid. Structural Design The depth of sewers must be adequate to accommodate the sewage from existing and future properties. The minimum depth should be 1.2 m. The minimum size of the sewer should be 200 mm in diameter in order to convey raw sewage. Straight alignment and uniform gradient between consecutive manholes should be laid for sewers of 600 mm or less in internal diameter while curves can be laid for sewers of larger than 600 mm internal diameter. Flexible type and watertight joints should be provided between sewers, sewer manhole or other appurtenance structure to avoid infiltration and breakage due to differential settlement. The foundation should be able to maintain the pipe in proper alignment and carry the weight of soil above the sewer and any other superimposed load. Service Connection The diameter of the connection must be adequate enough to prevent blockage problems. The sewer must have a minimum gradient of 2%. The minimum size of the connection should be 150 mm. Tee junction should be used to connect service connection to the main sewer. 2.5.2.1 Gravity Sewer Design Sewers are designed to convey the wastewater flows as required. Generally, it is not recommended to design the sewers for full flow, even at peak rates as the chances for problem arising are high. The flows that cover above 90% to 95% of full depths are considered unstable which may lead to sudden loss of carrying capacity with surcharging at manholes as shown in Figure 2.2 (Guyer, 2010). Surcharging means that the pipe that is designed to flow full or partly full, is now transporting the flow under pressure. When the flow exceeds the design capacity, there will be surcharge in the manholes (David and John, 2011). Besides that, large trunk and interceptor sewers laid on flat slopes experience less fluctuation in flow. If it is designed to flow full, the sewers may lack sufficient air space above the liquid for proper ventilation. Ventilation in sewer is important in preventing the buildup of explosive, corrosive or odorous gases, and for reducing the formation of hydrogen sulfide. Th us, the depth of design flow for trunk and interceptor sewers should not exceed 90% of full depth; laterals and main sewers, 80%; and building connections, 70%. Regardless of flow and depth, the minimum sizes of sewer pipes to be used are 150 mm for service connections and 200 mm for all other sewer types. The sewer pipes for service connections are usually smaller than 150 mm as they only convey liquids with little or no solids (e.g. condensate lines). A condensate line of more than 100 mm is recommended for most situations. Same design criteria as sanitary sewers can be applied to industrial application except pipe material that is resistant to the waste are to be specified. (Guyer, 2010) Figure 2.2 (a) Part-full pipe flow without surcharge (b) Pipe flow with surcharge (David and John, 2011) 2.6 Pipe Materials for Gravity Sewer There are many types of material which can be used for sewerage construction. However, the type of materials that we choose must depend on its life expectancy, previous local experience, roughness coefficient, structural strength and local availability. Table 2.2 shows the common materials that are suitable for sanitary sewers. Sewer pipes made by different material have different diameters and lengths. Table 2.2 Pipe Materials for Gravity Sewer Types of Pipe Material Length (m) Diameter (mm) Pipe Joints Vitrified clay pipe (VCP) 0.6 1.0 100 300 Flexible Reinforced concrete pipe 1.83 150 3000 Spigot socket type with rubber rings > 375mm diameter 3.05 Fabricated steel with sulphates resistance cement lining 9 100 1500 Spigot socket, flange and mechanical > 750mm diameter Welded joints Cast iron 3.66 Vary Flange and spigot socket type Asbestos cement pipe 4 100 600 Plastic pipe 6 110 630 Spigot end and socket type with rubber seals, jointing by flanges, welding and solvent cementing Other material CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction In this research, a field work will be conducted to get the information that will be used to reach the objectives of this research. 3.2 Preliminary Works This is the initial works that has to be done before conducting the field work at site. It includes information gathering on the topic of sewerage design and self-study on similar and related topics in order to learn more. 3.2.1 Information Gathering A series of books, articles and online information has to be studied to obtain information on the topic of sewerage design. Sources for sewerage design mostly come from abroad. However, the information on the method to evaluate the design criteria is obtained from related research by a local university. 3.2.2 Standard Code of Practice for Design and Installation of Sewerage Systems (MS1228:1991) With the reference to this code book, the design criteria and the factors to be considered for sewerage design is obtained. The equations to calculate the peak flow which depend on the population equivalent are all available in this standard code of practice. 3.3 Site Work A site has been identified for the field work data collection. The location of this site is in Tropicana Indah. Approval is still pending from IWK for access to their manholes. 3.3.1 Flow Characteristics Measurement The flow characteristic of a section of sewerage pipe systems can be measured by using a flow meter. This flow meter is provided with sensor which will automatically record the flow, velocity and water height at a specific time interval, which in this case is 5 minutes. Once the measurement is completed, the data from the flow meter will be linked to a computer that has Flowlink4 software. This software would aid the plotting of graphs for the 3 parameters (flow, velocity and height) as well as transfer of data to other software. From the data, the maximum and minimum hourly flow rate can be obtained. The average flow rate can be used to calculate per capita flow. Flow per capita = Average daily flow (m3/day) / Total population equivalent (PE) = m3/day/person The evaluation of peak factor and per capita flow for sewerage can also be done through the data obtained from field experiment. The equations that are used for sewerage design are as follow: a. Peak flow factor = 4.7 ÃÆ'- p-0.11 b. Average daily flow = Flow per capita ÃÆ'- PE = m3/day c. Peak domestic flow = Peak flow factor ÃÆ'- Average daily flow = 4.7 ÃÆ'- p-0.11 ÃÆ'- Flow per capita ÃÆ'- PE = m3/day From MS 1228:1991, the p value is an estimated PE in thousands and the average flow per capita is 225 L/day/person.